Biographies of Putnam Museum Herbarium Collectors

Irish, Charles W. (1834 - 1904)

In 1879 the sparcely populated Dakota Territory (˜ 1 person per square mile) provided an opportunity for profit (Time Passages Genealogy 2015).

"Marvin Hughitt, president of the Chicago & Northwestern Railway ... conceived the idea that by projecting his roads into the unoccupied territory of Dakota east of the Missouri river he would thereby induce a large settlement to come in and occupy the lands and that ultimately his company would find profitable business in the field (Robinson 1904a, p. 285)."

• Minnesota prior to 1879.

⇒ If we just give them some land, maybe they'll leave us alone. ... or ... Native Americans cede land and a way of life.

The nineteenth century was a calamitous period for the Native American tribes in what eventually became Minnesota. They went from controlling the entire state to owning only a small fraction of it. In general the Indians were negotiating from positions of weakness, because they lacked power, they could neither read, write, nor speak English well, and they put trust in the federal government to act fairly and in their best interest.

The Indians ceded massive portions of their native lands (see map) and were promised annual monetary assistance, education, food, and honest self-governance. In contrast, they received supervision by corrupt Indian agents, goods sold at greatly inflated prices, interest-only payments from the federal government (the Fed kept most of the principal), and generally poor treatment from all parties concerned. Consider the case of the Dakota Sioux. In one treaty the U.S. government essentially bought part of the Dakota's land for 7.5 cents an acre, then resold it to white settlers for a nearly 1700% per acre profit (Linder 1999, Minnesota Historical Society 2020a&c, Stone 2018, Weber 2019)! Late in the summer of 1862, disaster developed.

⇒ Homeland, culture, freedom, and patience - all LOST. ... or ... The Sioux are mad as hell and they're not going to take it anymore. - 1860s.

The Dakota were nearing starvation, the yield on their corn crop was poor, their request to buy food on credit had been rejected, and wild game was in short supply, because their hunting grounds had been reduced. In late August four Dakota hunters were returning from an unsuccessful foray, when they found and stole some chicken eggs from a white farmer. An argument among the hunters about keeping or returning the eggs ensued. For whatever reason, the four followed a fellow named Robinson Jones to a nearby farmstead and challenged a group of settlers there to a shooting match.

Which group had the better marksmen is unclear, but in what must have been an attempt to prove their bravery and dispel any notion of spinelessness, the Dakota hunters attacked the white farmers, killing three men and two women. Back at the reservation, they described their actions to the tribal leaders, who decided that a retaliatory attack by the white settlers was inevitable. The Dakota planned a preemptory strike. The next day they raided the Indian Agency at Redwood, Minnesota and killed 40 people. Over the next few days they stormed Fort Ridgely and New Ulm, killing another 100 or 200 settlers. Over the succeeding month and a half, between 400 and 600 settlers were killed, several hundred Dakota died, and over a thousand Dakota were imprisoned (History.com 2019, Lass 1963, Michno 2011, Minnesota Historical Society 2020b).

Of the imprisoned, 303 warriors were sentenced to death by a military court, but, following the appeal of Episcopal Bishop Henry Whipple, President Lincoln commuted the sentences of all but 38. On December 26, 1862, those 38 Dakota men were hanged at Mankato, Minnesota (History.com 2019, Linder 1999). The remnants of the Dakota remained incarcerated, escaped west into Dakota Territory, or were shipped off to other reservations. One serious proposal was to resettle the Chippewa, Menomonee, Sioux, and Winnebago tribes to Isle Royale in Lake Superior (Taylor 1862). Though the "inconvenient" Indians had essentially been removed from Minnesota (Lass 1963), a variety of feuds and skirmishes between the members of the Sioux Nation and white settlers continued to the west of Minnesota.

To quell further raids by Indian tribes the Sioux Treaty of 1868 (aka Treaty of Fort Laramie) set aside a reservation for the Sioux Nation. The Great Sioux Reservation encompassed nearly all land west of the Missouri River in what is today the state of South Dakota. The agreement stated that no one, except authorized representatives of the U.S. government, "shall ever be permitted to pass over, settle upon, or reside in the territory" set aside as the reservation. The treaty was to remain effective in perpetuity and it included the land sacred to the Sioux known as the Black Hills (see map). In reality, the treaty lasted until 1874 (American Indian Relief Council 2019a, United States of America 1868).

So, white men were essentially forbidden from entering the Great Sioux Reservation, but George Armstrong Custer's 1874 expedition into the Black Hills resulted in the discovery of gold. The news spread rapidly and the Black Hills Gold Rush brought flocks of white trespassers onto sacred Sioux land. The federal government was incapable of evicting white interlopers and unable to prevent more prospectors from invading, so it attempted to buy the Black Hills. The native tribes were displeased and, to say the least, intransigent. The ensuing Great Sioux War came to a head in the summer of 1876, when the two most remembered conflicts occurred - the Battle at Rosebud Creek (a defeat for General George Crook) and the Battle at the Little Bighorn (where George Armstrong Custer famously fared poorly).

They may have won battles, but the Native Americans were losing the war. The ensuing years brought repeated skirmishes, some Indians escaped to Canada, many were killed, some were imprisoned in the Indian Territory, and nearly all of them were displeased and mistreated (American Indian Relief Council 2019b, Custer Battle 2017, Ferguson 2014).

With that as a backdrop, the story moves to extreme southwestern Minnesota, Dakota Territory, and railroads.

• Planning a railroad to the Black Hills of Dakota Territory began in Minnesota.

⇒ The Chicago & Northwestern Railroad sees an opportunity for profit. - 1877.

In March of 1877, various officers of the Chicago & Northwestern Railway (C&NWRR) trekked from southwestern Minnesota to Pierre, Dakota Territory. The goal behind their effort was the establishment of a trade route to the Black Hills that incorporated stagecoach, riverboat, and rail travel. A key member of the overland trip was the company's managing director, Marvin Hughitt.

Hughitt concluded that rather than build a railroad to simply meet an existing need, one could be built to create a need. He felt that a rail line through Dakota Territory to the Missouri River at Pierre would spur development of the more or less unoccupied region (at least it was unoccupied by European settlers). Hughitt convinced the board of directors that the railroad would provide access to desirable land, promote settlement, and encourage the development of businesses/support services for the settlers. In return the Chicago & Northwestern Line would benefit from an increased revenue stream, as it provided affordable transport of people, goods, and services into the frontier (Hufstetler & Bedeau 2007, Robinson 1904a). [Casey & Douglas (1948) provide an informative summary of Marvin Hughitt's transition from telegrapher to leader of the Chicago & Northwestern Railroad system.]

⇒ Charles W. Irish - Civil Engineer ... or ... From the sunny Southwest into a cloud of conflict and distrust - 1879

Early in 1879 civil engineer Charles W. Irish went to work for the Chicago & Northwestern Railroad. Charles had over 20 years of railroad construction experience and was fresh off a one-year stint in New Mexico and Arizona Territories surveying for the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad's line from Las Vegas, New Mexico to Florence, Arizona. In the Southwest his greatest challenges were excessive heat, scarce water, hostile native inhabitants, ornery fauna, and prickly flora.

Now, in 1879, he was tasked with surveying a route for the C&NWRR from southwestern Minnesota, through the southern half of Dakota Territory, to the Missouri River at Pierre and on to the Black Hills. This undertaking, like that of the Southwest, occurred under a cloud of conflict and distrust as described above. Like the situation he faced in the Southwest, Charles found that scattered cells of native inhabitants, the fauna, and the environment could be downright inhospitable.

The C&NWRR venture into Dakota Territory occurred only a few years after the Battle of the Little Bighorn (1876) and the Battle of Wolf Mountain (1877). Fears of continued clashes between the distrustful/infuriated Sioux tribesman and European invaders were well founded, so much so that the U.S. War Department offered to supply the C&NWRR survey crew with a military escort. Irish declined the offer, thinking that if his group behaved in a peaceful manner and negotiated with the Sioux in good faith, they would be perceived as non-threatening and allowed to complete their work without molestation.

Irish's approach was sincere, shrewd, and, in large part, successful. Early on he befriended a leader among the Sioux Nation, Chief Spotted Tail, and that relationship translated into a trusting and friendly working relationship (Irish 1893).

• Wind, wood, and fire!

Irish reconnoitered southwestern Minnesota and the adjacent areas of Dakota Territory early in 1879 to prepare for the upcoming survey season. In a Valentine's Day letter to his wife from Currie, Minnesota he wrote about visiting Lake Tetonkaha and Oakwood in the northwest quadrant of Brookings County, Dakota Territory (see maps (Burdett 1876) and (Peterson 1897)), as well as Lake Benton in southwestern Minnesota. Old Man Winter proved to be a beastly malefactor as Charles endured a six-day period of gale-force winds and temperatures that fell to -20℉ (Irish 1879a).

Nineteenth century Dakota Territory prairie accommodations were spartan. Though sod houses were common, wood for heating them was not and, consequently, "prairie coal" was often collected by women and children to fuel their heating/cooking stoves (Cherney 2006, GrassBioenergy.org 2019, History Nebraska 2019). Irish wrote his wife from the comparative comfort of a rented room in a home heated by a wood fire, but he marveled at the ability of the settlers to survive brutally cold weather in soddies — some warmed with hay-burning stoves.

"My goodness you would go crazy ... They fill up one end of the room with hay and it takes one all the time to put it in the stove, then the ashes fly out all over the room. The women have a streak of black ashes on each side of their eyes with a gutter or furrow down which the tears run in streams" (Irish 1879a).

It wasn't until March 20, 1879 that work on the Chicago & Northwestern Railroad line to the Black Hills began with a full crew of employees. The starting point was Tracy, Minnesota and the survey party consisted of C.W. Irish, D.C. Dunlap, P. Powers, C.J. Hutchison, A.J. Hughitt, C.J. Carse, L. Christianson, O.N. Hughitt, Joe Mudree, E.S. Miller, H. M Latio, G. Syters, W.N. Shankl[i]n, G.W. Thorn, M. DeBarr, F.S. Meyers, I.E. Segur, W.C. Cole, I.D. Collins, I. M. Leigeton, and J.S. Nettiburgh (Anonymous 1887).

Ten days later the crew had progressed 15 miles northwest to Lyon County's Rush Lake (aka Brush Lake and Black Rush Lake). Spring had begun to encroach on territory previously claimed by Old Man Winter, farmers were beginning field work, and the railroad survey crew experienced their first encounter with a prairie fire. The conflagration seems to have captivated Charles.

"I had the chance to see a prairie fire yesterday running before the wind which blew so hard I thought it would blow me off the horse[.] The fire traveled faster than I ever saw a railroad train run. It was at once a fearful and beautiful sight." But he sang a less charitable tune, when he learned that Mother Nature was not the source of the fire. "Well we have got over the scare from the fire but my mouth and face are still sore from the scorching I got then. We found out that it was a lot of indians who set the fire. The red devils thought to burn the camp, so you see they have opened hostilities on us already" (Irish 1879 b&c).

The bulk of the spring of 1879 was spent investigating the region of southwestern Minnesota, the vicinity of Lake Benton acting as home base. They executed several forays westward to the Big Sioux River and seemed to be constantly fighting some adverse condition — high winds, nettling illnesses, the occasional arsonist's grass fire, periodically cold weather, shortage of game (Irish 1879d).

• Out of Minnesota and on to the James River, Dakota Territory

⇒ Dry lakes, a message in a bottle, and a familiar tune from the Hunkpati band. ... or ... Do your homework, when planning for the long term and the Sioux relinquish more of their homeland.

Weather during the tail end of May and beginning of June fluctuated from wet, cool, and stormy to dry, hot, and windy. Though the weather had been unsettled and the surveyors had experienced several rainy periods, the climate of the area had been very dry for quite some time. In June the survey made headway through western Brookings and eastern Kingsbury counties and the consequences of the extended drought appeared as they progressed past Whitewood, Preston, and Tetonkaha dry lakes (see maps: Burdett 1876, Peterson 1897 & 1899).

"The wind blew a violent gale all day. It is a dry region. Had battle with Norwegians for a bucket full of water. Got it and went on." ... "High wind all day and hot. Our horses gave out for want of water." ... "We began a line through the coteaus and ran west to the three dry lakes and backed up, as this does not suit me. Wind blew strong (Irish 1879f - June 7 & 10)."

Was "... this does not suit me ..." just a moment of idle thought? Or, was the dry lake area really concerning?

Irish knew that expenses and construction time could be reduced by building the railroad across a waterless lakebed — still he had second thoughts and talked with local settlers. Those who had been in the region for 25 years said the lakes had always been dry, but the recollections of resident French-Canadian voyageurs told a different story. They recalled the lakes had been full of water 35 to 40 years prior and Irish found that when Nicollet and Fremont's expedition passed through the area in 1838, the lakes were water-filled (Irish 1884, Nicollet & Fremont 1843). So, ...

"I came very near locating the railroad line through Lake Preston, for the head men of the railroad company believed that it had dried up for all time; but on my presenting the testimony of certain reliable voyageurs, they allowed me to go around it. It was well that they did, for the winter of 1880-81 gave a snow-fall such as had not been seen since the years of 1843-44 and in the spring of 1881 all these lakes filled up, bank full, and have continued so ever since (Irish 1879f & 1884)."

June 20, 1879. West of Lake Preston. About four miles north and a mile east of Manchester in Kingsbury County, Dakota Territory (in this vicinity).

"… We camped at a tank of water. As we came on, named a fine lonely Butte after Mr. Blunt. Buried a glass bottle with the names of party & copy of the Chicago Times in it. … (Irish 1879f)."

Fast forward eight years.

On his way home from Spirit Lake, Mr. C.H. Manchester recalled a tale about a bottle of whiskey buried in the butte he happened to be approaching (see T111N, R57W, NE1/4_Sec. 17). With thirst as his motivator and curiosity as his guide, Mr. Manchester made his way to the butte with shovel in hand. After a short period of excavation, old C.H. struck paydirt or more accurately a corked bottle. Alas, Manchester's discovery was alcohol-free, but it held instead the "Blunt's Butte" dedication statement (honoring J.E. Blunt, a civil engineer with the Winona & St. Peter branch of the C&NWRR), a tally of survey team associates, and a copy of the May 27, 1879 Chicago Times (Anonymous 1887, Irish 1879d, Ogle & Co. 1909).

From the Manchester area the surveyors headed west, then north along the James River, and by June 27th they were camped on the southwest corner of Lake Byron (about here). The crew continued north within the James River valley to its confluence with Turtle Creek, near the original location of Ashton in Spink County, where the Dirt Lodge Village was located on the east bank of the James River (Irish 1879d, Kingsbury 1915b, Rice 1878). Though the survey crew's visit to the Dirt Lodge Village was peaceful, a far different atmosphere prevailed for many years prior.

The Hunkpati band of the Yanktonai Sioux, led by Drifting Goose, chose the Dirt Lodge Village location for their summer living quarters. There was plenty of wood for building shelter, they could grow corn, sunflowers, and tobacco; ducks, geese, antelope, and fish were plentiful. The Sioux lived and hunted peacefully in and around the James River basin, until intrusions by white settlers became commonplace. For 20 years or more, in order to sustain their hunting grounds, preserve their culture, and forestall further intrusion by whites, Drifting Goose led his people on retaliatory assaults to "convince" homesteaders and railroaders to settle outside the James River valley.

During their aggressive and mostly nonviolent, but persuasive, raids, the Hunkpati stole horses, moved or hid survey markers, and generally fomented panic among settlers. But by the time Charles Irish and his crew arrived, the buffalo herds and other food sources were depleted, land seizures by whites were extensive, and Drifting Goose's people simply lacked sufficient clout to maintain control of their tribal lands. They had few options other than accept resettlement on reservations set up by Uncle Sam (Akta Lakota Museum & Cultural Center 2019, Kingsbury 1915a, SDSHS & SDDGFP 2015, South Dakota State Historical Society 2018, Ziebach 1916).

• Harsh weather, lousy water, winged vampires and unruly employees. - June & July 1879!

⇒ Rustlers, rations, and rain.

As the surveyors worked their way through Brookings, Kingsbury, and Beadle Counties in east central Dakota Territory, occasional letters from home reached the camp as well as warnings about brewing Indian conflicts. A band of cattle rustlers camped just over the horizon raised anxiety levels, but neither the Indians, nor the thieves had any impact upon the survey work. Of far greater importance were their supplies of food and water.

A steady diet of cured meat soon lost its luster, so fresh game was always celebrated. The men occasionally caught fish or hunted ducks, but they were more likely to encounter elk, antelope, and prairie dogs — they enjoyed meals of the latter two. Regardless of what they ate, it was Mother Nature's vicious outbursts that too often made progress and life in general difficult.

"At 4 this AM a heavy storm of rain, high wind, & thunder and lightning came up. It blew the A tent and the longer tent loose and turned their occupants out in the storm (Irish 1879f - June 24)." Violent storms soaked the surveyors, scattered their belongings, transformed the ground into a mucky mire, and made fording streams or travel in general, a challenge. Subsequent muddy conditions, temperatures in the 90's, and high humidity, hindered their progress further, but the crew typically reassembled their gear and soldiered on through the prairie pothole district. Though the surrounding landscape was pockmarked with small lakes, ponds, and marshes, finding safe water remained a concern.

"Moved camp ... to Sect. 21, T111, [R]60 on bank of Hutchinson lake. It is a fine body of water, but strong with salts, so that it made us all sick to drink it. Dug wells, but no better. Sent 8 miles to James River for water. ... This lake stinks like [illegible] of sulphur." So, surface water was plentiful, but drinking water was not. As the summer progressed and the rains diminished, it was tougher and tougher to dig for drinking water. "… The water is drying up fast. We dig 8 feet now, where 4 feet did before."

⇒ "If you think you are too small to make a difference, try sleeping with a mosquito (Dalai Lama)."

Early rains and warming temperatures begat numerous tranquil ponds and many evenings of slumberless suffering.

          Inverted demons wriggle and writhe, beneath an aquatic plane,
          Then ravenous wraiths take to the wing, rapiers in search of a vein!
          High-pitched drone of buzzing wings, bloodthirsty beasts take flight,
          Humans and horses lacking defense, spend a miserable night!

"Had the worst mosquito fight yet. Hardly an eye was closed last night." ... "What a mosquito night past. They swarmed by the millions around our tents. It pains me to hear the men and horses groan all night." ... "Horror of horrors. What a night we have passed. At dark the mosquitoes came by the millions." ... "Had a relief of 15 men. 3 at a time. 2 hours each to smudge mosquitoes. Got some sleep. ... it's hot. Mosquitoes all day." ... "Had 15 men out last night, reliefs of 3, each two hours [tending smudge pots]. ... Mr. Welterman came with the horse covers (Irish 1879f)."

⇒ Some fellas ought not carry a handgun, on-the-job drinking is ill-advised, and cleanliness is a virtue.

Unsurprisingly, be it on the 1879 frontier in Dakota Territory or in the 21st century boardroom, conflicts and unforeseen obstacles arise. C.W. Irish played his part as a supervisor and juggled several unanticipated tasks brought on by men who spent extended periods of time together with few idle-time diversions. C.J. Carse needed a refresher course in care and operation of a firearm, I.D. Collins got liquored up on the job, and W.C. Cole had an aversion to soap.

July 17 & 18 - "Mr. Carse shot himself through the right leg with a small pocket pistol. Wound not dangerous, but the shock to him was terrible. Pulse 15 per minute for 1 hour."
And this AM ... Dr. Higgins ... cut out Carses [sic] shot."
July 19 - "Collins got drunk, so discharged him. Discharged Cole and Shanklin. The boys took Cole and ducked him in the lake for reason of his filthiness in camp. (Irish 1879e & g)"

• Westward out of "Bugland".

The survey team worked between the James River and Medicine Creek during the first half of the month of August. They had escaped (more or less) from the unrelenting mosquitoes and made steady progress. Except for one day, when "hail 5 inches deep fell on camp", they didn't have to contend with rainy or muddy conditions, however, the air was smokey and visibility was limited by numerous prairie fires. So they grumbled about breathing air that was "full of smoke", as temperatures consistently hit the high 90s and rose beyond the 100℉ mark often. Though something of a blessing for survey work, the hot/dry conditions had drawbacks.

Hot and dry conditions desiccated the landscape, which then provided precious little good forage for the livestock. "Day hot as blazes. We are all tired out and the poor horses have only grass to eat. These plains are so barren, only grass and but little of it." Besides causing a shortage of pasture grass, the circumstances made the search for drinking water a struggle. "Sent 10 men out to scout NW. 4 SE and I took 3 and went west to find water." And, there were illnesses.

"Hot as blazes. Joe Mudra, Mr. Leighton, and Olson were overpowered by the intense heat. Had to send them to camp. I am not quite on of health. ... The camp diarrhea has made its appearance among us. ... 4 men sick today and off work. ... I am still sick. ... Adams is very sick. Break bone fever the trouble. ... Adams is much worse. I staid with him all day. Got his pulse down from 118 to 85 by the use of quinine and bromate [?]."

Irish's "break bone fever" prognosis was likely erroneous as it (aka Dengue Fever) is a disease of tropical regions. Even so, his use of quinine (and various salts of the compound) as a treatment for a variety of illnesses was customary practice at the time (Bartholow 1879, Merck 1895, Taylor 2020).

By mid-August, the survey team had escaped (more or less) from the bloodsucking provocateurs and were camped at the north end of the Wessington Hills (about here). They continued west towards Fort Pierre and spent a considerable amount of time along and around Medicine Creek (see Territory of Dakota, Hughes County here), with one of their camps established at Reed's Ranch (Irish 1879f).

Irish's work diary shows that August was plagued by struggles with elevated temperatures (90s and 100s), various illnesses, and an under-abundance of forage for the horses. They cherished the occasional harvest of an unwary deer, they grumbled about breathing air that was "full of smoke" (presumably from prairie grass fires), and they coped with the frequent challenge of finding potable water.

September seems to have been a "re-" month. They retraced their trek eastward to Minnesota, reexamined the various routes for the planned railroad, and revised their decisions wherever necessary. They packed up their gear in southwestern Minnesota during the first days of October and C.W. Irish was in Winona, Minnesota on the 4th. He arrived in Chicago (by way of Baraboo, Wisconsin) October 6th to meet with his supervisors, draw maps, and complete other documents. Mrs. Irish arrived from Iowa City on the afternoon of the 9th. The weather was pretty hot, so when Charles could break away from his railroad duties, he and his wife spent time sightseeing along the shore of Lake Michigan at Lincoln Park in the city's northern section, at what was called Lake Park at the time (including the exposition building) along the shore in the city's center, and at the Stephen A. Douglas tomb/memorial on the city's south side near the University of Chicago (Irish 1879f).

All-in-all, Mr. Irish split the months of October and November reconnoitering parts of SW Minnesota and eastern Dakota, traveling to Chicago, Winona, and Iowa City, and preparing for an extended survey period in Dakota Territory between Fort George and parts west. Charles left home on November 14th and was in Yankton Dakota the next evening. After he'd purchased supplies and hired a teamster, Irish and the crew traveled northward along the James River past Olivet, Milltown, and Rockport, where they headed west and arrived at Crow Creek on the 23rd. They were bivouacked at Fort Thompson (about here) on the 24th and were at Fort George (about here) the next day (Irish 1879f).

The team spent most of December working in two localities. One was the vicinity of the aforementioned Fort George, currently resting peacefully beneath the surface of Lake Sharpe (the reservoir created by the construction of Big Bend Dam at Fort Thompson (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 2012)). They also recorded distances, directions, and elevations along the drainage way of Medicine Creek, which meets the Missouri River (about here). Medicine Creek flows through 15 - 20 miles of Hughes County and the C&NWRR ultimately chose to run its tracks along the creek's length.

Their winter quarters at Fort George Island, which Charles referred to as "Irish's Ranch", consisted of a cabin with a cookstove for meal preparation and a centrally located stove for additional heat. The heating unit must not have been anything to brag about, because Irish told his wife in a letter that, with the exception of himself and the cook, they slept two men to a bunk (7.5 feet X 4.5 feet) and each man had at least "three pair of heavy blankets and two buffalo robes". Whether indoors or working out in the elements, staying warm was undoubtedly a chore. Snow was abundant, wind speeds were high, and the temperatures hovered below zero for days at a time. Other than provisions they purchased at Fort Thompson, the surveyors dined on antelope, jack rabbits, the occasional deer, and prairie chickens (Irish 1879 d2, e,&f).

• Winter of 1879-1880.

According to Irish, the season was adequately severe:

December 7, 1879 - "5 AM -8, wind calm, it's very cold ... I do hate the plains now in the winter."
December 11, 1879 - "-28, wind 5 miles an hour NW, clear."
December 14, 1879 - "Have gone through two blizzards and encountered temperatures as low as 29 degrees below zero."
December 22, 1879 - "-26 at 5 AM. ... Saw many wolves about us. ..."
December 24, 1879 - "At 5 AM -38 [degrees below zero] ... The storm has blown over, but it's sharp. We got out and ran a trial line ... At noon temp -10 ..."

Charles was the medical staff and as such he treated cases of influenza and/or other maladies, when they befell him and other members of the group.

December 14, 1879 - "The level party had four of its ears frozen."
December 28, 1879 - "I feel that Fatzinger must have medical help and so started for Ft. Hale (Irish 1879f)."
January 18, 1880 - "… I now have a large hospital on hand Linkhart, Lewis, Powers, Leighton, McNiel, DeBarr are all sick."
January 19, 1880 - "… I have seven sick men all whining and groaning in the embrace of breakbone fever." "I have had a hard time this winter. It has been like taking care of so many spoiled and sick children (Irish 1880c)."

Isolation from medical facilities and lack of access to medications for the treatment of influenza, catarrh, etc. forced Irish into a role of compounding pharmacist. Charles successfully treated himself and members of his troop with whiskey-based concoctions of quinine and acid to combat bouts of influenza and catarrh.

January 6 - "I have besides such symptoms as accompany influenza, very severe pains in my back and hips. I take whiskey and quinine with muriatic acid."
"1 oz. whiskey, 7 grains sulfate of quinine, & 11 drops of muriatic acid."
January 7 - "Now take whiskey: 1 oz. and Jamaica Ginger: 1/2 teaspoonful 3 times each day. Muriatic acid 10 drops: 2 times each day."
January 8 - "The ginger and whiskey is a good diuretic & the acid is rapidly removing the excess alkali from my system."
January 9 - "I am slowly getting better. The whiskey and ginger is a good diuretic & stimulant and the acid is a good anti-alkali" (Irish 1880a).

They constantly monitored the activities of other residents of the nearby plains. "We are beyond civilization now and in the midst of the wild indians. There are two camps near us ... last night we heard the drums. Tum, tum, tum and the shouts of the indians in a wild medicine dance. We heard them distinctly nearly all night. ... There are four large tribes here, all Sioux. They are the Sans Arcs, Blackfeet, the Minneconajous, and Ogallallas [sic]. All very wild (Irish 1880a)."

Besides keeping an eye on their neighbors, battling the elements, and treating the sick, there was work to be done. During periods of survivable weather and moderate healthfulness, the C&NWRR survey crew trekked, examined, and mapped the 120-mile region along the Missouri River from the Irish Ranch at Fort George Island, upstream to Fort Sully, and WNW upriver to Fort Pierre. Side trips included surveys bordering Medicine Creek north of the river and in the Little Bend region at the junction of the Missouri River with the Big Cheyenne River.

• Spring and early summer 1880 - Rain, illness, and bad luck with horses.

Early March progress was hindered by a precipitation glut and a temperature slump.

"Had a terrible night of it. Powers and I slept together. No tent. Leighton and Sherwood in the wagon. They like to have frzn [sic] themselves (March 7)."
"Storms hard winds and snow for the past three days. The temperature ranges from -20 to 2° or 3° above zero (March 11th)."
"Its [sic] still winter. The ice in the river [Missouri River] is still solid and all the country buried in snow (March 15th)."
"Gracious. How it thawed today (March 18th)."
"The thaw goes on and my camp is a mud hole (March 21st) (Irish 1880c)."

The month's end brought plans for an excursion east and out of frontier Dakota, but preparations were hampered by high winds and frequent rain. The trip itself was jeopardized by an entirely different circumstance. "The stage driver from Felicias ranch feared to go on, as the prairie burned so fiercely in the high wind last night, but in spite of his fears and Mr. Arthur's, I with Beveridge got him to go on. ... reached Yankton at 2 pm (Irish 1880c - March 30th).

Irish enjoyed a respite with his family in Iowa City and was engaged in meetings with C&NWRR executives in Chicago, during the first couple of weeks of April. But by April 18th, accompanied by his wife, Susannah, C.W. was headed upstream from Sioux City on the Steamer Black Hills (see Frajola 2010 & Vivian 2013). Though high winds and snow drove the vessel ashore at Bon Homme Island (currently nestled beneath Lewis and Clark Lake about here), the pair arrived at Fort Pierre on the evening of April 26th.

During May, Susannah remained at Fort Pierre, while the survey crew retraced their work from the vicinity of Medicine Creek through the Ree Hills, the Wessington Hills, and eastward to the newly established burg of Huron (total number of houses - six) on the James River. In some places spring forage was in short supply, because fall fires had destroyed nearly all of the edible plant-life. In other spots potable water was hard to find. And Mother Nature did her best to assert her superiority, as sheltering tents that had been anchored in pleasant breezes were suddenly torn from their moorings by gale-force winds and battering rain or hail.

Summer (May, June, & July) weather that fluctuated from dry and pleasant to severe and wet, took its toll on man and beast. Insufficient graze, an over-abundance of work, and illnesses, caused the horses to decline and several perished. Like their animals, the men were challenged by the fluctuating conditions. Pleasant weather was too often interrupted by extreme temperatures (as high as 106°) coupled with oppressive humidity. Then there were the periods of rain, dampness, and uncomfortably chill temperatures, that challenged their immune systems, led to many illnesses, and resulted in a number of unproductive days (Irish 1880c).

• August 1880 - More visitors from home.

Evidently C.W. considered travel through the Dakotas via the Missouri River a relatively safe bet, because in July, he and his wife, invited their daughters, Elizabeth and Ruth (ages 14 and 21, respectively), to join them at Fort Pierre. The young women traveled via coal train from Iowa City to Cedar Rapids (about July 23rd), then caught rail connections west to Missouri Valley and north to Sioux City (see map). In Sioux City they boarded the steamship General Meade to complete their trip up the Missouri River.

A heavily laden cargo hold, combined with a low stream level, converted the "General Meade" into the "Ship-to-Nowhere" mired in the muck of Missouri River mud. So, much of the cargo was unloaded, a ferry boat and a land-borne winch were attached to the "General", and it was eventually drawn into deeper water. Once afloat, the vessel was reloaded and the upstream journey began. During the week-long excursion, the General Meade ran aground three or four times, Elizabeth and Ruth were entertained by a shipboard romance between a "sour snarly old widower" and a "spinster", a deckhand tried to purloin their possessions under cover of darkness, and several Indians sought to barter horses for the women.

The eventful voyage ended on August 1st, when the General Meade berthed at Fort Pierre. Elizabeth was quite taken with the citizenry of the frontier center. "I had heard descriptions of the people and place, still could not help feeling some surprise when I caught sight of women dressed in the latest styles, wearing men's hats and carrying revolvers and fans at their belts. The men wore buck-skin pants with fringe and beads on the side seams, cartridge belts around their waists, with knives and Colt's revolvers attached thereto, moccasins upon their feet, their hair falling upon their shoulders and crowned by large sombreros (Irish, Elizabeth 1880)."

Susannah and her daughters remained in and around Fort Pierre until the morning of August 30th, having witnessed several significant events during their stay. Negotiations were completed between 50 Sioux Chieftains and the president of the C&NWRR to secure peaceful passage for the survey team across tribal land to the Black Hills (August 18th). A would-be horse thief, under cover of darkness, tried to steal the mount of C.W. Irish's interpreter. Caught in mid-theft, the bandit scrambled through a river's edge thicket, and shots were fired as he dove into the water. No body was discovered. The young women hunted prairie dogs, helped deliver a herd of beef cattle to Fort Sully, and successfully served a local Indian a hearty meal, in lieu of the "spirit water" he requested. After a good taste of frontier life, it was time to return to Iowa City and the three women sailed downriver aboard the Coulson Packet Line's 212-foot-long steamer "Western" (Irish 1880c, Irish, Elizabeth 1880, Robinson 1918).

• Just as we left Pierre a man was shot and killed. - August 29, 1880.

Whereas Fort Pierre on the west side of the Missouri River had been an established frontier trading post since 1832, Pierre (originally known as "Matto") across the river to the east didn't come into being until April 1880 (City of Pierre 1990, National Park Service 2020). The promise of becoming a railroad hub brought more interest and people to the young town. Some new arrivals were temporary, like Charles Irish, his family, and co-workers, and others intended to be permanent residents. Founders of Pierre, like Anson and John D. Hilger, were good people who established stores, hotels, and other businesses, but the burg also attracted its share of disaffected malcontents, misfits, and miscreants (City of Pierre 1990, Hilger 1914, Zion 2016).

So, it's not entirely surprising that on August 29th Irish wrote "just as we left Pierre, a man was shot & killed". According to the "Press and Daily Dakotaian", the conflict Mr. Irish mentioned was between Dick Morris and Lou Bentley. They were bull whackers and had been good friends, until a "woman of easy virtue", named Georgie, came between them. It seems that Dick was "love struck" with Georgie and he took umbrage upon finding Lou in Georgie's company. Harsh words were exchanged and Lou hustled across to Fort Pierre on the west side of the river. Dick raged and roiled for a bit (a condition perhaps exacerbated by strong drink), then followed Lou across the Missouri River, where the resulting fracas transpired.

"When people, who were up town, arrived on the spot. Dick Morris, better known as "Black Dick" and who was conceded to be the best man on the road to handle a revolver, was found lying on the ground nearly dead. It was reported as follows by those who saw the transaction: Dick came along and drew his six shooter, having already threatened Lou Bentley's life several times, and Bentley, who was also armed, threw up his arms and told him to hold on and not to shoot, but Dick blazed away, missing Bentley, when B. drew his revolver and returned the fire three times, two of the shots taking effect in Dick's body, causing his death in about ten minutes. A large crowd gathered around and did all they could to bring Dick to life again but it was of no use, as he was fatally shot. At the time of the shooting, Dick had just returned from the other side of the river, and was quite drunk, and being jealous about a girl was the cause of the fight, although Dick and Lou had been good friends for some time (Bowen & Kingsbury 1880 a,b,&c, Hilger 1914)."

• No jury? No problem. "Arkansaw Joe" experiences vigilante justice.

Again, the anticipated arrival of the railroad to Pierre brought hoteliers, clothiers, and other merchants to town, who catered to upstanding citizens. However, brothels, saloons, and other endeavors aligned with the seedier side of commerce often catered to the underbelly of society — those individuals prone towards acts of moral turpitude.

On August 19th Mr. Irish recorded the following in his work diary, "A man was shot and killed in dance house at Pierre night of 18". On August 31st and on September 5th, a few days after his family had departed for Iowa City, Irish expressed some concern about a fellow named "Arkansaw who killed a man in Pierre". It seems that Arkansaw lingered about their survey camp and that Irish's unease was justified as Alexander McDonald Putello, aka Arkansaw, was a well-known gent of discourteous demeanor. Though he created no problems for Irish or his crew, "Arkansaw" was the man who killed "Texas George" (Warner 1880) and his band of like-minded, ill-tempered ruffians often prospered by separating law-abiding citizens from their hard-earned possessions (Brown & Willard 1924, Irish 1880b & 1880c, Hilger 1914, Pierre Historic Preservation Commission 2020).

Putello came to Fort Pierre in 1879 from Boscobel, Wisconsin. He was a reliable, red-haired, friendly-enough fellow, who started his career in Dakota Territory hauling supplies for a rancher to the cattleman's homestead 35 miles west of Fort Pierre. The 4-day trips to the ranch became drudgery and Putello hired on with a company hauling freight from Fort Pierre to the gold fields of Deadwood.

Ironically, the one-time obliging and compliant Putello, was transformed into the irascible persecutor "Arkansaw Joe", when he drew his wages. He lacked the ability to stave off the call of "Demon Alcohol", which contributed to his drift towards larcenous and lawless behavior. Eventually, "Arkansaw" shed his life of respectability entirely, inebriated or not, for an association with thugs, bandits, and cutthroats, whose careers in crime and drunkenness went unchecked for a lengthy period. Arkansaw was known to have murdered several gents and he was feared, because of his deadly aim and ornery demeanor. There was, you see, no elected or appointed law officer in the region in 1880.

The demise of Arkansaw's criminal consortium began in mid-November, when one of his henchmen, Pock Marked Kelly, robbed a Pierre restaurant and shot the restauranteur in the head. Kelly was "arrested" and "jailed" in a local store by the shopkeeper who intended to escort Kelly to Yankton (about 250 miles away by river) for trial. That plan went awry, when two of Kelly's associates broke him out of "hoosegow" and nearly killed the "jailer". A group of citizens had had enough of the ne'er-do-wells, formed the Pierre Vigilance Committee, armed themselves to the teeth, and marched to the red-light district. Brandishing their weapons, the Vigilance Committee asked the businesswomen of the tenderloin district, perhaps along with a few desperados, to leave Pierre. They complied by moving to the west side of the river.

The appalling boldness of the Pierre Vigilance Committee galled Arkansaw and his band, who vowed retribution. The very next night they strode into French Joe’s Saloon and Card Room, collared the bartender, and demanded drinks and money. There was plenty of "tonsil varnish", but little cash, because the proprietor had anticipated an assault and had hidden most of the day's revenues. Unfortunately, about this time Bert Wilcox stepped into the bar to wet his whistle and Arkansaw spotted him. The drunken outlaw pointed his pistols at Bert and bade him to join them for a drink, Bert declined and dove out the door.

Fortunately for Bert, Arkansaw's alcohol enhanced aim was off and his two shots missed their mark, but the noise alerted the Pierre Vigilance Committee. The vigilantes sprang into action and hiked to French Joe’s Saloon. Fearing vengeance would be soon upon them, the desperados scattered, but Arkansaw was spotted creeping through bushes adjacent to a nearby building. The members of the Pierre Vigilance Committee subscribed to the "shoot first and ask questions later" school of justice. One vigilante unleashed both chambers of his double-barreled shotgun and hit Arkansaw with two charges of buckshot. The other members showed no mercy and an additional 17 holes soon perforated Arkansaw's flesh.

They shaved Arkansaw Joe, dressed the dead man in a new suit, and buried him in the local cemetery, glad to be rid of the malcontent. And that's where Arkansaw rested for 14 years, but in 1904, when excavating for the foundation of a new capital building, the remains of a red-haired corpse were discovered. Judging from the location of the grave and the distinctive shock of hair, a former member of the Pierre Vigilance Committee identified the body as that of Arkansaw! The citizens kept his skull and ultimately put it on display with other artifacts in Pierre's Soldiers and Sailors Museum, where it remained until about 1970. At that time the museum personnel had a change of heart and reinterred Arkansaw's skull, as well as other human remains in a rural Stanley County cemetery (Brown & Willard 1924, Goodspeed 1904, Hilger 1914, Merrick 1880, Pierre Historic Preservation Commission 2020, Zion 2016).

• "Brokering an agreement for access to land west of the Missouri River." or "Finding a way to survey to the Black Hills and stay alive."

From the very beginning of his Dakota Territory venture, Charles W. Irish was aware of the challenges he'd have to face as an unwelcome intruder in the Sioux Nation.

"It was greatly feared by the war department, that I would be taken prisoner by the Indians, upon going into their country, and that I, with those with me would share the fate of Gen. Custer and his soldiers. I was offered a military escort, but refused, for I thought it best to go among these Indians, in a way not at all war like. I took a more peaceful way than that, and went among them with a determination, to make them friends of mine, in which I succeeded very well. I went at once and made the acquaintance of the old chief, Spotted Tail and through him became acquainted with all the leading Indians or chiefs, of the great Sioux nation, in power at that time, and out of this, I learned a great many interesting things, of their history, their habits, and their language (Irish 1893)."

The survey group's January 1880 attempt at land reconnaissance west of the Missouri River met with decisive opposition. "Powers and I went up the Cheyenne [River], but indian police turned us back. ... The indian police told us that on the west side of the Mime Sho Sha [Missouri River] was Lakota land. And on the east side white man land & that we must stay on its east side."

So, the railroad survey team confined its tail-end-of-the-year efforts to measuring the Missouri River's width, recording elevations, and sounding its depths around Cheyenne Island in the Missouri River's Little Bend region (about here). The men even took time for a little recreation! "We had a shooting match last night. Shot at candles in McLain's log house. Had lots of fun" (Irish 1880c - January 27-30).

Much work was yet to be done east of the river, so it wasn't until mid-August that serious negotiations with the Lakota Sioux took place. At that time Charles W. Irish, various local citizens, the serving Indian agent, and several representatives of the Chicago & Northwestern Railroad negotiated with many Chiefs of the Lakota Sioux Nation for permission to survey from the Missouri River west to the Black Hills (Irish 1880c, 1893).

As mentioned earlier, Irish's respectful and honest approach in dealing with the Dakota Sioux paid significant dividends, as he was able to establish a harmonious rapport with Chief Spotted Tail. That acquaintanceship evolved into a trusting bond between the two men - a remarkable accomplishment that led Irish to form a business relationship with Charles Tackett (Spotted Tail's son-in-law) and Max Spotted Tail (one of Chief Spotted Tails' sons). Spotted Tail's relatives performed their duties as interpreters, escorts, scouts, and payroll couriers honorably (Irish 1893). Though the survey team enjoyed somewhat preferred status, friction between them and other members of the Sioux Nation occurred.

• Hunting jack rabbits from a moving freight wagon, an ill-advised venture.

On September 3rd, a couple of weeks after the deal had been struck with the Sioux and a few days after Irish's family had departed for Iowa, work west of Fort Pierre was underway. Part of the survey crew was mapping sites about twelve miles from the Missouri River along Willow Creek and north of the Bad River.

Progress was slow and the work was exhausting, because recent rainy weather had saturated the clay soil making it soft, slippery, and difficult to slog through. Quitting time was about 6:00 p.m. and the troop (of a half-dozen men or so) was returning to their base camp. The wagons clattered and rocked single file along a rutted trail through what was often gluelike gumbo, while men on horseback rode alongside. Mr. Posey was driving the front team with Perry Powers riding next to him; Mr. Sanborn and Mr. Morse followed in a second wagon. Then all hell broke loose (Bowen & Kingsbury 1880d, Irish 1880 b & c.).

"The rear wagon scared up two jack rabbits and at once they pulled out their pistols. Powers leaned over to the left and looked backward. So did Posey, who had a pistol cocked in his hand. The fools behind began to fire. Sanborn just behind Powers fired, so did Morse. The horses started up and the idiot Posey with a cocked pistol in his hand began to pull in on the reins, when off went the pistol. It's a great wonder that he did not kill someone or himself with it. Sanborn and the others kept on firing until Bob Chambers was going to knock some of them down, when they came to their senses. Scott came to me on horseback to tell me of it. I sent back and had Powers brought to town at once. And I then set at work and probed and dressed the wound taking out some small splinters of bone. ... I did not like to depend upon my judgment [sic], so sent to Ft [sic] Bennett for Dr. McChesney. He came and examined the wound and said I had done all that could be done for it (Irish 1880 b & c)."

Powers recuperated in town and Mr. Irish visited him several times to check on his progress. Though Irish wrote about Perry Powers' recovery, his name soon disappeared from Irish's work diary.

• Negotiating with the Sioux, gluttony, and an addictive remedy for overeating.

West of the Missouri River the survey team was escorted by various members of the Sioux Nation. Whirlwind, Red Skirt, Charles Tackett, White Bull, and Corn were just a few of the Indians that acted as scouts, guides, and perhaps protectors. Typically, interactions between the survey team and the Sioux were tolerable to cordial, but there were times when demands ... and concessions ... were made. For example, this interaction from September 1880.

"I had two visits from the Chiefs Little Bear and White Swan. They insist that I shall send Whirlwind and Max [Max Spotted Tail] off and hire two more of theirs. ... I sent Hodgekiss, White Bull, and Corn out on a hunt. They killed a deer and one antelope."

"We got two hams. The indians got the rest. Such a feast. They sat up all night to eat liver and entrails raw. Then they all got sick. Lord! How sick. Mrs. Tobacco Sac ate so much that she lay for two days outside her teepe [sic] like a dog or hog that has had an over fill."

"Well at last it went back on her, as it did on the rest. Then such a time. They would run in all directions and at last some got so sick that they could not run at all. Mrs. Tackett lay all day out by the wagon as if dead drunk. Then at times off they go and sit for hours on the tops of the hills near by all alone. ... I took pity on them at last and running the risk of being shot if I failed to cure began giving them full doses of Squibbs tincture of opium [sic]. And to night they are all better (Irish 1880b)."

The final months of the C&NWRR survey were among the most grueling of the entire campaign. On October 14th and 15th Irish (1880c) wrote,

"Hard storm last night. Rain until midnight then snow. It snowed all day today and the wind a perfect gale. ... The sick are worse and the camp comfortless. We have all we can do to keep warm in this gale. ... Stormy stormy. High wind. The snow fell 3 inches deep and still the wind blows. I feel quite under the weather. Tried to get my tent warm with stove pipe and tin pan. It was not a success."

Little did Irish know that his notes were more than a summary of two days' events, they were prophetic.

• What's with the water?

Work west of the Missouri River was more or less restricted to the drainage systems of the Bad, the Cheyenne, the Belle Fourche Rivers. The Belle Fourche is the "beautiful branch" of the Cheyenne, the Cheyenne River was christened such in honor of the native tribe inhabiting its shores, and the Bad River's title is a remembrance of a downpour induced flash flood that wiped out people and livestock, when it annihilated an Indian village (Ehrensperger 1940).

Time and time again, Irish reported that he, the Indians, and/or members of his crew were sick. Though the influenza virus or other pathogens may have been bothersome infective agents at times, it seems the primary problem was one of life's requirements — water! Sources of the thirst-quenching liquid were commonplace; the men were constantly exploring the terrain along streams and creeks, while precipitation, in the form of snow and/or rain, fell frequently.

Illness was unavoidable. Now and then, when work east of the Missouri River was progressing, Irish mentioned medical problems among members of the survey team. However, the frequency of his ill-health reports rose noticeably, when they labored between the Missouri River and the Black Hills. As illustrated below, Irish's "west of the Missouri" health reports often named (or alluded to) debilitating diarrhea and alleged that their drinking water was the culprit.

Irish's (1880c) records during the winter are peppered with comments like:

‣  "All the camp party sick and 3 horses. The water is so bad."
‣  "Tackett is still sick. So is Chase and two others also. It's the villainous water."
‣  "Tackett is sick and gets worse. He has not been well since we left Pierre. Poor Chase had to leave, the water here hurt him so."
‣  "Chase, Van Norwen [?], Tackett, and McCaddo are sick of dysentery. Some others are about sick of this."
‣  "The indians are nearly all sick. 11 out of 12 of them and 4 of my men are also sick of a virulent dysentery. It's a very painful disease."

It simply wasn't practicable to dig a well to the underlying aquifer, so their water sources must have been surficial (e.g. rivers, streams, springs, waterholes) or near-surface (shallow wells that penetrated only to the water table). What was wrong with the water? Cholera? Typhoid? Those seem unlikely, because untreated, the bacterial pathogens would have killed some [many?] people (CDC 2020, World Health Organization 2019), whereas the afflicted among Irish's group regained their health.

Perhaps the answer was not in something humans introduced to foul the water, but in a naturally occurring contaminant. The dissolved components of the water sources and the concentration of those components was (and is) dependent upon the geologic material through which the water passes. According to various contemporary authors (see Bast 2020, Office of Water 2003, Williamson & Carter 2001) it's entirely possible that Irish and his team collected and stored potable water that contained a high concentration of the sulfate ion. And, consider comments made by Lieutenant G.K. Warren (1856) during an exploration west of Fort Pierre.

"The region drained by this river [the Bad River] is quite sterile, the soil much impregnated with what is usually called Epsom salts in this country. In the dry portion of the summer and autumn the stream has no running water, and the bed and sides of the banks become incrusted with this salt; at a distance they seem to be covered with snow. The water standing in pools possesses very active purgative qualities."

Epsom salt (magnesium sulfate) may have many therapeutic qualities as a warm foot bath for reducing pain and swelling in arthritic joints. However, the levels of sulfate in the railroad survey team's potable water were likely high enough to impart a bitter taste and to induce diarrhea — recall Irish's comments about "villainous water" and "virulent diarrhea"! It's conceivable that the survey team realized that their water with the disagreeable taste was the source of equally disagreeable side effects. But, because there were no alternative water sources, day after day they consumed the very water that provided them with the hydration they needed and the ion that brought on Montezuma's revenge!

• Cold, snow, and floods! --- The winter and spring of 1880-81.

Based upon formal climatological data and anecdotal information (Boustead et al. 2019, Kingsbury 1904), the winter of 1880-81 is infamous for its early arrival, intensity, and longevity. So severe was the season, that it was immortalized in fictional accounts like "The Long Winter" authored by Laura Ingalls Wilder and O.E. Rolvaag's "Giants in the Earth". The snow started to fall in October and Old Man Winter did not loosen his grip on the region until the following March.

In the vicinity of Fort Pierre, Mr. Irish (1880c) noted the prospect of an approaching winter blast. "Strong signs of a storm (Oct 9). ... Day very cold and wind a severe gale (Oct. 10). ... A very cold night and high wind (Oct. 11). ... My canteen of coffee froze solid in the bed at my head. The wind blew chilly and a gale from SE (Oct. 12). ... The bar [barometer] has been very high and in the past 2 days got very low. Wind blows hard (Oct. 13). ... Hard storm last night. Rain until midnight, then snow (Oct. 14). ... Stormy stormy. High wind. The snow fell 3 inches deep and still the wind blows (October 15)." And so the winter began.

The mid-October blizzard conditions reported by Irish were anomalous for neither that location, nor that time period. A scan of Charles' work diary reveals a pattern of repeated periods of brutal weather conditions (i.e. frigid below zero temperatures, high winds, heavy snow, or any combination of the three) from October through March. They worked along the Bad River and its tributary creeks from Fort Pierre to the west. After the mid-October blizzard the snow stopped, but the temperatures remained low. The beginning of November brought much warmer temperatures (+58° on the 6th) and rain. But then several mid-month days were marred by temperatures that bottomed out at -20° (give or take a few degrees). December was similar — stormy and windy during the first week, with temperatures as low as -26°F. Week two was more moderate, week three snowy and cold. The end of December and the New Year brought milder weather, but the 2nd week of January brought severe conditions with temperatures that fluctuated between +2° and -40°F (Irish 1880c).

Irish's daily records are confirmed by historical meteorological records compiled and analyzed by Boustead (2011) and Boustead et al. (2019). Their analysis supports "the conclusion that the Hard Winter of 1880-1881 was among the most severe since settlers of European descent arrived in the Plains region and began keeping records".

As Marvin Hughitt had predicted, settlers quickly moved into Dakota Territory as the railroad was built. People either settled within a short distance of the rail line or migrated north and south of it along rivers and streams. Regardless, many immigrants arrived late in the growing season and everyone depended upon rail service to one degree or another for many of needed supplies. The Dakota Central line of the Chicago & Northwestern Railway went into service at Huron, Dakota on July 12th. At that time roadbed grading was nearly complete along the 110 miles from Huron to Pierre. The line actually reached Pierre in October 1880, but did not open for business until November 15 (Dunning & Forney 1880a&b, Kingsbury 1904, Robinson 1904a, Stennett 1905). The Northwestern Express and Stage and Transportation Company connected Fort Pierre with the Black Hills via daily stagecoach and freight wagon service (see map).

The survey team did indeed suffer through the chronic illnesses mentioned above and battled Mother Nature on a number of occasions. However, it appears they avoided some of the hardships other citizens endured during the beastly winter of 1880-81. Ranchers in the Pierre to Black Hills region withstood the worst of Old Man Winter's fury in the form of stock losses, due to loss of forage (Merrick 1881a). Not far to the east, snows were so frequent and the winds so brutal, that the railroad tracks were frequently blocked by drifting snow. Hundreds of people were hired as shoveling gangs to clear the tracks of snow, so that business could resume, but within days or even hours new windborne snow filled the recently shoveled channels. On December 20th a train left Dakota Central station in Pierre, it was the last train to visit Pierre for four or five months (Christenson 2014, Ebert 2014, Oltman 1954, Stennett 1905).

Just as the winter of 1880 and '81 was brutal, the following spring was equally devastating. At sometime prior to winter's end, Charles Irish warned any who would listen that a flood of devastating proportions was likely, when warmer weather brought with it the annual thaw. He even posted a flier warning of such in the Fort Pierre post (Ebert 2014). Some merchants heeded Irish's warning and moved their goods to higher ground adjacent to the Missouri River. In particular Louis Albright, who had worked on Irish's survey crew, moved all of his lumber and other construction materials from warehouses at the river's edge to safer ground at higher elevations (Ebert 2014, Irish 1880c, Kingsbury 1915d).

The spring thaw was abrupt, started at the end of March, and was devastating (Merrick 1881b, Oltman 1954). Sudden warmer temperatures generated snow melt that followed the course of the Missouri River. Eventually the break-up of the river's ice covering began and blocks of ice that were several feet thick began moving downstream. The inevitable ice jams developed and damned the river, backing up the snow melt, and flooding the landscape (see photos here and here) from at least as far north as Bismark and on south to Omaha (Kingsbury 1915c).

"When the snow started to disappear, it left in a hurry. The river rose very rapidly, the ice gorged a short distance below town, turning the water into the bottoms and flooded the town with from four to six feet of water. Those who were not so fortunate as to possess two story houses were obliged to retreat to higher ground. My dugout was filled with women and children and I was obliged to seek quarters elsewhere because of the lack of room (Hilger 1914, p. 10.)"

"March 27 - The river broke last night and the river raised rapidly. Fort Pierre is submerged." "March 29 - The Missouri River broke lose Sunday. Ft. Pierre is a total wreck." "March 30 - Ft. Pierre covered with ice from three to twenty feet deep (Warner 1881)." The destruction of buildings, cropland, livestock, and other goods along the bottomlands of the Missouri River cannot be understated and yet the area slowly rebuilt and recovered.

Though Irish and the survey team completed their work in 1881, the Chicago & Northwestern Railroad did not progress west of Pierre. The Ft. Pierre-Deadwood trail continued to be the major link from Pierre to the Black Hills. The Chicago & Northwestern Railroad bought out the Northwestern Transportation Company and in so doing became the major carrier of freight from the Missouri River at Pierre/Ft. Pierre to Deadwood (Hall 1996, Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail 2022). It wasn't until 1907 that the first train crossed the Missouri River at Pierre/Ft. Pierre and prior to then, goods crossed the river via ferry or on pontoon bridges (Hall 1996, Hufstetler & Bedeau 200, Weeks 1996).

..........

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